Studied by 13 peoplegerminal stage
prenatal stage between conception - 2 weeks
conception, implantation, formation of placenta
embryonic stage
prenatal stage between 2 weeks - 2 months
formation of vital organs and systems
fetal stage
prenatal stage between 2 months - birth
bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply
age of viability
during pregnancy, what is severe malnutrition linked to? (2)
birth complications
neurological problems
what is moderate malnutrition during pregnancy linked to?
psychopathy in adolescence and adulthood
what is maternal drug use linked to in adulthood? (3)
depression
suicide
criminal behaviour
cephalocaudal trend
head to foot
babies gain control of the top of their body first
proximodistal trend
centre-outward
babies motor control begins in the centre of body, then moves outward
maturation
gradual unfolding of genetic blueprint
temperament
an individual’s characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity
longitudinal designs
track one group over time to assess them
cross-sectional designs
comparing groups at one point in time
what are the 3 basic temperamental styles?
easy
slow to warm up
difficult
what temperamental style describes a baby who is happy, sleeps regularly, and eats well?
easy
what temperamental style describes a baby who is less cheery, sleeps and eats well sometimes, and takes time to adjust to change?
slow to warm up
what temperamental style describes a baby who is irritable, has emotional reactivity to change, and is erratic with sleeping and eating?
difficult
what did thomas, chess, and birch study?
the 3 basic temperamental styles of babies
what temperamental style is most likely to have mood problems?
difficult
what did kagan and snidman study?
inhibited vs. uninhibited temperament
does a baby who is shy, wary and timid have an inhibited or an uninhibited temperament?
inhibited
does a baby who has less restraint and less fear have an inhibited or an uninhibited temperament?
uninhibited
what can alter a child’s temperament?
parental reactions
attachment
close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers
what did harlow study?
MONKEYS!!!! and attachment
what was the conclusion to harlow’s experiments?
attachment to mothers is from comfort, not nursing
what did john bowlby add onto harlow’s research? (2)
said attachment wasn’t learned, rather it is biological.
said babies do cute things so caregivers want to keep them safe.
what did ainsworth study?
separation anxiety, tested attachment in conditions where the mother left the room
what are the four attachment styles that ainsworth studied?
secure
anxious-ambivalent
avoidant
disorganized / disoriented
what attachment style does a baby have who is fine when the mom leaves the room?
secure
what attachment style does a baby have who is anxious in the presence of a stranger even when mom is there, cries when mom leaves, and continues crying when she returns?
anxious-abivalent
what attachment style does a baby have who doesn’t care about the stranger, doesn’t pay attention to mom or care when she leaves?
avoidant
what attachment style does a baby have who appears confused about how they should be interacting with their mother?
disorganized / disoriented
what attachment style is more likely when parents are a predictable, stable influence in a child’s life?
secure
what are the 3 components of stage theories?
progress through stages in order
progress through stages related to age
major discontinuities in development
what did erik erikson study?
psychosocial crises determining balance between opposing polarities in personality
8 stages of life
what is stage 1 of erickson’s stage theory?
trust vs. mistrust
1st year of life
rely on adults for basic needs
what is stage 2 of erickson’s stage theory?
autonomy vs. shame / doubt
2 - 3 years old
child begins to take some personal responsibility
what is stage 3 of erickson’s stage theory?
initiative vs. guilt
4 - 6 years old
children experiment and take initiative
what is stage 4 of erickson’s stage theory?
industry vs. inferiority
6 - puberty
learning to function socially, beyond family
what is stage 5 of erickson’s stage theory?
identity vs. confusion
adolescence
forming a sense of identity
what is stage 6 of erickson’s stage theory?
intimacy vs. isolation
early adulthood
to develop the capacity to share intimacy with others
what is stage 7 of erickson’s stage theory?
generativity vs. self-absorption
middle adulthood
genuine concern for the welfare of future generations
what is stage 8 of erickson’s stage theory?
integrity vs. despair
late adulthood
avoid dwelling on past mistakes and imminent death, instead finds meaning and satisfaction in life
what did jean piaget study?
cognitive development
argued that the interation with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way that children think
assimilation
interpreting new experiences using existing mental structures
accommodation
changing existing mental structures to explain new experiences
what are the 4 stages of cognitive development (piaget)?
sensorimotor (birth - 2 years)
preoperational (2 - 7 years)
concrete operational (7 - 11 years)
formal operational (teen years - early 20s)
what is the key task in the sensorimotor period?
object permanence
the recognition that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible
what is the key task in the preoperational period?
conservation
recognizing that the amount of a substance does not change just because the appearance is changed
what do children master in the concrete operational period? (4)
reversibility
decentration
declining egocentrism
gradual mastery of conservation
what is the key task in the formal operational period?
able to apply operations to abstract concepts
begin thinking in “degrees” (ex. how good / bad, on a scale)
systematic problem solving
what are the key tasks to achieve conservation, according to piaget? (4)
centration
egocentrism
reversibility
animism
centration
tendancy for children to focus on one aspect of the problem and ignore the rest (ex. height of beaker in piaget’s conservation task)
egocentrism
only cognitively capable of taking their own perspective on issues
reversibility
unable to mentally undo something
animism
tendency to put human qualities into everything that they see
(ex. fire is angry, stuffed animal is sad)
what are weaknesses to piaget’s theory? (3)
underestimates children’s cognitive development
does not address individual differences
does not address cultural variations
what type of theory is piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
stage theory
what type of theory is vygotsky theory of cognitive development?
socio-cultural theory
what did vygotsky study? (3)
cognitive development and social interactions
culture
language acquisition
what were vygotsky’s 2 main theoretical concepts?
the zone of proximal development (the space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can do with adult guidance)
scaffolding (a student's ability to learn information through the help of a more informed individual)
critical period
limited time span when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences
sensitive period
optimal period for acquisition (developing a skill), but can still learn a new skill beyond this period
what did kohlberg study?
the development of moral reasoning
what are the 3 levels of moral reasoning in kohlberg’s theory?
preconventional
conventional
postconventional
what is the pre-conventional level in kohlberg’s theory?
external authority
stage 1: punishment orientation
stage 2: naive reward orientation
what is the conventional level in kohlberg’s theory?
rules maintain social order
stage 3: good boy / good girl orientation
stage 4: authority orientation
what is the post-conventional level in kohlberg’s theory?
personal code of ethics
stage 5: social contract orientation
stage 6: individual principles and conscience orientation
white matter
communication + linking different parts of the brain
starts to slow down in adolescence
grey matter
thinking part of brain
starts to slow down in adolesence
synaptic pruning: areas of the brain you use in childhood are prioritized, other areas are not
what do MRI studies show about the teen brain?
the teen brain is subject to considerable change (brain remains relatively plastic up to age 25)
pre-frontal cortex
executive control center
what did james marcia study?
identity statuses
what are the 4 identity statuses?
foreclosure
moratorium
identity diffusion
identity achievement
foreclosure
premature commitment
based on what other people want for us (parents, caregivers)
moratorium
delaying commitment
engaging in experimentation with different roles
identity diffusion
lack of direction
apathy, avoiding the question of what they are going to do
identity achievement
sense of self
after consideration, arriving at sense of self and having a sense of direction
emerging adulthood
18 - 25
delays in marriage and parenthood
subjective feeling of being “in between”
self-focused
what is the “U” trend?
maritial satisfaction are highest at the beginning and end of the family cycle
boomerang children
involves returing to live in parents home after moving out
conflict occurs when new roles have not been negotiated
fluid intelligence
basic information-processing skills
declines with age
crystallized intelligence
application of accumulated knowledge
remains stable with age
episodic memory
personal experiences
working memory
short term store
procedural memory
actions, skills, operations
semantic memory
general knowledge
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