Ch. 2 - Altered Cells and TIssues

protects the cell by creating a barrier that separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment; arranged in a bilayer of lipids, proteins, and carbs

everything inside the plasma membrane except the nucleus; a colloidal substance made of water, proteins, fats, electrolytes, glycogen, and pigments

contains DNA for cellular reproduction

framework of proteins organized into filaments and tubules that help cell shape, movement, and intracellular transport

network of tubules producing proteins and fats

membranous structure that prepares substances for the ER for secretion

small sac that digests cellular debris with hydroltic enzymes

tiny sac (smaller than lysosomes) containing oxidases that neutralizes free radicals

breaks down proteins

aerobic respiration; produces ATP

• transportation

• ingestion

• secretion

• respiration

• communication

• reproduction

no energy required

includes:

• diffusion

• osmosis

movement of substances across the plasma membrane aided by transport proteins

ex. glucose

requires energy when transporting particles across the plasma membrane, against the concentration gradient

the process used to transport large substances into cells

includes:

• pinocytosis

• phagocytosis

process of ingesting contents of small vesicles containing liquid; requires ATP

the process of ingesting large particles (cells, bacteria, and damaged cell components) by phagocytes

extracellular release of products

includes:

• exocytosis

vesicles move from the golgi apparatus, fuse with the plasma membrane, and empty their contents into the extracellular environment

• atrophy

• hypertrophy

• hyperplasia

• metaplasia

• dysplasia

the decrease in individual cell size due to different reasons

• decreased functional demand

• immobilization

• ischemia

• nutritional deprivation

• aging

• removal of hormonal signals

an increase in cell size

• increase in trophic/growth signals

• increased demand

• strength building exercises

an increase in cell number

• hormone signaling

• increased workload

the changing of one cell type to another

• persistent stressors

• ex.

  • GERD

  • smoking

the actual change in cell size, shape, uniformity, arrangement, and structure; can be the first cancer cells cue to mutations

• chronic and persistent stressors

• abnormal differentiation of dividing cells

• apoptosis

• necrosis

cellular suicide; programmed cell death prompted by genetic signals and is designed to replace old cells with new ones re

• damaged genetic material

• mutation

• old cell age (ex. RBC)

• attempt to decrease the number of cells

• enzyme reactions in the cell

a disordered process associated with inflammation; death of cells related to cell injury causing damage to cell structures (mitochondria), decreasing required ATP

ex. pressure injuries or gangrene

• physical injury

• mechanical injury

• thermal injury

• chemical injury

caused by impact of a body part causing direct injury

ex. falling off a bike

temperature, as occurs with burns and frostbite

endogenous:

• when a person has an allergic reaction, toxins are released from within the body, which causes cell damage and associated symptoms.

exogenous:

• alcohol, which can damage the cells of the liver with prolonged exposure.

hypertrophic cardiac myopathy; a decrease of cardiac muscle that results from excessive workload and functional demand

• genetically inherited (primary)

OR

• underlying condition causing a increase in ventricular workload (secondary)

  • increased pressure in pulmonary circulation

  • HTN

  • aortic stenosis

  • stiff ventricles

• asymptomatic

• severe limit in function

• heart murmur

• decreased perfusion (ischemia, angina)

• decreased cardiac output

• pump failure:

  • SOB

  • chest pain

  • syncope (MARKER FOR SUDDEN DEATH)

  • irregular rate and rhythm

• 12 lead EKG to identify defects at rest

• ambulatory Holter EKG to identify arrhythmias at rest

• exercise stress testing

• genetic testing

• HTN testing

• Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors

• Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs)

• calcium channel blockers

• beta blockers

• activity restrictions

a condition of hyperplasia prompted by excessive growth hormone stimulation; commonly manifests as abnormal growth of the hands and feet

• secretion of excessive growth hormone from the pituitary gland and secondary increase in growth factor 1 causes exaggerated skeletal and organ growth after growth plate closure

or

• adenoma/tumor on the pituitary gland

• soft tissue swelling

• enlarged hands and feet

• altered facial features

  • prominent brow, jaw, and nasal bones

  • enlarged tongue and lips

  • increased spacing between teeth

• pain and numbness in teeth deepening voice

• snoring

• skin changes

  • coarse hair growth

  • oily appearance

  • sweating

  • body odor

• altered reproductive functioning

  • menstrual cycle alterations

  • impotence

  • breast discharge

• pressure on brain tissues and nerves

• headaches

• impaired vision

• altered pituitary function

• elevated IGF-1

• measurement of growth hormone

• glucose tolerance test

• MRI to rule out adenoma

• hx and physical

(designed to decrease the overproduction of IGF-1 and growth hormone)

• somatostatin analogs

  • inhibits growth hormone secretion

• dopamine agonists

  • less effective than somatostatin

  • acts on the pituitary to decrease growth hormone and IGF-1 secretion

• growth hormone agonistis

  • binds to growth hormone receptors to block endogenous growth hormone

• radiation

  • can be the primary treatment to shrink adenoma

• surgery

  • removal of adenoma

cells of the cervix responding to the hormonal environment, promoting adaptive and maladaptive responses

changing of cell types as a response to environmental stressors d

abnormal growth and disordered differentiation in dividing cells

• cellular adaption of the squamous and columnar epithelia cells in the transformation zone of the cervix

• high or low estrogen can cause changes from squamous to columnar and vice versa

• epithelial cells respond to stressors and cause dysplastic changes

  • abnormal growth

  • disordered differentiation

  • premature sloughing off

• is usually asymptomatic

• early onset of sexual activity

• multiple sex partners (>3)

• exposure to HPV

• smoking

• screening tests

  • physical

  • cervical sampling

  • cervical assessment

  • diagnostic excisional procedure

  • Pap smears

  • HPV screening

• diagnostic testing

  • colposcopy (biopsy of cervical tissue)

• ablation (removal of superficial cells)

  • cryosurgery

  • CO2 laser ablation

  • cold coagulation

  • electrocoagulation diathermy ablation

• hysterectomy