Psych Exam

The mental process involved in knowing, learning, and understanding things

Step-by-step problem solving solution which guarantees solutions

Simple strategies/short-cuts, based on past experiences, that allow us to solve problems faster, but are error-prone

The tendency to cling to initial conceptions or beliefs despite proof to the contrary

A mental shortcut relying on psychologically salient or easily imagined examples rather than actual odds or factual information

Have clearly defined characteristics and agreed upon rules governing what is included in that concept. E.g. triangle, animals

Do not have clearly defined characteristics nor agreed upon rules of what is included in the concept. E.g. chair, mum

Mental image, or best example, of a concept

Any example of an item within an overarching concept

A mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information

Thinking based on established schema, quick, prone to error, use shortcuts/heuristic, automatic

Thinking requiring effort and concentration, uses conscious reasoning, reliable but slow

We are cognitive misers, we experience ego depletion, our cognitive load is too high --> the law of least effort

Biological evidence that different types of thinking may be processed in different parts of the brain. The Wason selection task and other tests for cognitive biases have reliable results.

Definition of System 1 and System 2 are not always clear. Some argue there is not just two systems. Does not explain emotion etc.

The assumption that an individual case is more representative than it actually is

The easier something is to think of the more it feels true. Things that we are exposed to are more present in our mind, feel more likely to occur.

The tendency to overestimate how accurate our beliefs and judgements are. We tend to be more confident than correct

tendency to search for information that supports our pre-existing beliefs

Memories of facts and events

Memory of general facts

Autobiographical memories

Memories of how to do something, e.g. ride a bike or play piano

Directs attention to tasks, allocates information based on modality

Limited capacity, deals with auditory information and language,

Limited capacity, deals with visual or spatial information, the 'inner scribe' processes spatial and movement information

Links information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information, such as the memory of an event

Experimental evidence, brain scans showing different areas activated for visual vs verbal tasks, explains how we can multitask in some situations but not others

How various components of the model interact is not clear, does not explain the process of long-term memory, does not explain the role of emotion

Rehearsal is necessary to transfer information from STM to LTM, neither explains memory distortion or role of emotion, agree that STM is limited in capacity and duration

WMM divides MSTM into multiple stores, WMM focuses solely on ,STM and argues that modalities are processed differently

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971)

Baddeley and Hitch in 1974

Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term mem

A temporary store holding information from the environment very briefly, only lasting a few seconds and decays rapidly

How information is transferred from the sensory registers to the short-term store

Where we hold information we’re currently paying attention to, limited capacity and duration (15 to 30 seconds), has rehearsal buffer

How information is transferred from the short-term store to the long-term store

Where we keep our long-term, permanent memories after it has been rehearsed in the short-term store. This has an unlimited capacity and these memories are permanent

Searching for information is a control process in the short-term and long-term stores. We can retrieve information from our long-term memory by using active search processes.

Depicts the decline of memory retention over time

The effect an item’s position on a list has on how well it is recalled

Wwhen a participant recalls information presented earlier in a list better than information presented later on

When a participant recalls information presented at the end of a list better than information presented in the middle of a list

Has experimental evidence, relevant applications

Over-simplifies memory, does not explain why you can rehearse information and it is not transferred to Long-Term Memory

Showed how schema play a role in encoding information. Telephone game with story of Native American culture, participants distorted the story to make it more consistent with their culture

When an existing schema is replaced

When you add information to your schema.

Schema about events in time (e.g. what happens on Christmas)

A highly detailed, exceptionally vivid "snapshot" of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened

Prior knowledge (schema) helps us decide whether something is important or not. Emotion (specifically, surprise) plays a key role in the encoding of the memory.

A complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements

A subjective experience, a physiological response, a behavioural response

The subjective experience associated with an emotion

An emotional state that is general and extended in time

Encompasses feelings, mood, and categories of emotion (e.g. positive and negative affect)

Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time

Emotions arise from physiological arousal

Facial expressions are capable of influencing our emo

Emotions consist of two factors: physiological and cognitive. First, environmental stimuli elicits a physiological response. Second, we cognitively appraise this physiological activity, and try to give it the correct label.

We observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid

Our heart races as we experience fear

Arousal could be labelled as fear or excitement depending on the context

Emotional reactions exist separately from cognitive labels on emotional situations: instant reaction, then apprasial

We automatically react to a sound in the forest before appraising it

A thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal.

Emotional feelings occur along two or more continuous dimensions, such as pleasure vs. displeasure and activation vs. deactivation. E

Anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise (7)

Anger, contempt, disgust, fear, guilt, interest, joy, sadness, shame, surprise (10)

Anger, anticipation, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise, trust (8) - each experienced with different levels of intensity

Those affected by how we see ourselves and how we think others perceive us

Based on a person’s appraisal or consideration of another person’s thoughts, feelings, or actions

Based on one’s own physical state.

The degree to which a person feels enthusiastic, active, and alert

A state of high energy, full concentration, and pleasurable engagement

Sadness, lethargy, distress, and un-pleasurable engagement

A general dimension of subjective distress

A variety of aversive states, including anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness

A state of calmness and serenity

Behaviour is localised and the equipotential theory

Different parts of the brain have different functions which play a role in human behaviour

All areas of the brain are equally active in overall mental functioning.

The idea that some functions are specialised to one side (hemisphere) of the brain

Corpus callosum

Peripheral and Central (includes brain and spinal cord)

Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary responses to cognitive and environmental stimuli that give rise to emotional responses

Sympathetic Division and Parasympathetic Division

"Fight or Flight", mobilises resources for emergency responses such as self-defense, and its effects include increases in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, among others

"Rest and Digest", works to preserve bodily resources by slowing down respiration and heart rate and reducing blood pressure

An evolutionary theory of brain development that emphasizes three key brain regions consisting of the brainstem, the limbic system, and the cortex that function relatively independently. Is inaccurate: structures have not been added on over time, but instead modified

Right hemisphere of brain dominant in all emotional processing.

Right hemisphere of brain dominant for negative emotions; left dominant for positive emotions

More active than left hemisphere during displays of many emotions. High activity is associated with depression and flexion (avoidant) emotions

More active than right during smiling, positive emotions, and extension (approach) motions. Relatively low activity in the left frontal lobe is associated with depression

A system of functionally related neural structures in the brain that are involved in emotional behavior. Includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus.

Processing fearful and threatening stimuli, flight or fight response

Involved in expression and perception of emotions

Controls emotional memory recalling and regulation, as well as fear response