aice psych revision: the studies

What goes on in your brain when you're awake.

Active

Roughly 15 minutes in length, then cycles through 2, 3, 4, and then 5 again. Cycle repeats every 90 minutes 5-6 cycles/night More REM sleep in the morning

In 1953, Aserinsky and Kleitman observed REM/NREM sleep periods Subjects recalled dreaming during REM sleep Dement and Kleitman sought to develop an objective test of relationship between REM and dreaming

1. Does dream recall occur during REM/NREM sleep?

2. Is there a correlation between REM duration and estimates of dream length?

3. Do eye movement patterns match dream content?

4. Does the duration of REM sleep correlate with the number of words in a reported dream?

Initially 9 participants

7 men, 2 women 5 studied intensively 2 withdrew after night one, 2 withdrew after night two

We do not know the sampling technique. We only know subjects slept in a lab at the University of Chicago.

Hybrid quasi-natural laboratory experiment Research methods were self-reports and observations (Controlled, Non-participant, Overt)

Qualitative and quantitative

Qualitative Descriptions of dreams Quantitative Instances of dream recall, dream length estimates, number of words in each dream narrative

1. Woken during REM or NREM sleep

2. Being awoken after 5 and 15 minutes into REM sleep

3. Direction of eye movement (Horizontal, vertical, mixture, little to no movement)

4. N/A

1. Number of dreams recalled during REM and NREM sleep

2. Number of correct estimates of the duration of dreams

3. Subjective report of dreaming when woken

4. Words used to describe a dream was compared with the duration of the dream

Design was repeated measures.

Apparatus Quiet room at the lab Bed EEG machine w/ electrodes Door bell Tape recorder

All participants were told not to drink alcoholic/caffeinated beverages All participants were asked to report to the lab at their bedtime Always slept in a quiet, dark room Always woken by the doorbell Always recorded their dreams into the tape recorder

• Participants would arrive at the lab at their normal bedtime

• Participants went to to sleep in a quiet, dark room with electrodes attached to the eye and scalp areas

• Electrodes were attached by a single wire to the EEG outside the room.

• Subjects were then woken at various times to test dream recall.

• Subjects awakened as soon as one of the four patterns of eye movement (Horizontal, vertical, little/none, mixed) had persisted for over a minute.

• When woken, participant would speak into the tape recorder near the bed.

• First, they said whether they had been dreaming. Second, they said what they were dreaming about. (Operationalized based on if recall was clear)

• If they did recall, were occasionally asked to estimate dream length. (5min/15min)

• Participants returned to sleep within 5 minutes after an awakening.

• Awakening generally terminated REM sleep, but some exceptions were observed during the final hours of sleep with long periods of REM sleep

61 total nights, with 351 awakenings

No communication between experimenter and subject until after the dream content was relayed. Sometimes, they walked in to ask additional questions.

Participants were NOT told whether or not they were woken in REM sleep or in NREM sleep.

Participant WD was deceived. He was told he'd be awakened only when the recording indicated he was dreaming. REM and NREM awakenings were then interspersed.

2x Random 1x Experimenter choice 3x REM 3x NREM

• All subjects displayed cycles of REM sleep every night

• REM patterns varied per individual, but none entered REM during initial sleep

• Avg. gap was one REM cycle every 92 minutes. Norm was between 70 and 104

• One duration of REM sleep lasted between 3-50 minutes, the average was 20

Woken during REM SLEEP

• 152 dream reports

• 39 no dream reports

Woken during NREM SLEEP

• 11 dream reports (May have remembered previous dream)

• 149 no dream reports

Yes. People were much more likely to recall dreams when woken during REM sleep.

5 minutes into REM sleep

• 45 correctly estimated

• 6 reports incorrectly estimated

15 minutes into REM sleep

• 47 correctly estimated

• 13 incorrectly estimated

Yes. Subjective length of dreams match up with duration of REM sleep.

Yes. When woken from a specific eye movement, participants reported dreams corresponding to that pattern.

Vertical movement

• Reported standing at the bottom of a cliff and hoisting things up and down

• Reported climbing a ladder and looking up and down

• Reported bouncing and throwing a basketball into the basket

Horizontal movement

• Reported watching two people throwing tomatoes at each other

Little or no movement

• Reported watching something at a distance or just staring fixedly at an object

Mixed movement

• Reported driving a car and staring at the road ahead

Yes. Number of words used to describe a dream correlated with the length of the REM period

Dream narratives lasting 30-50 minutes were not much longer than those after 15. (Hypothesized to be due to inability to remember all details)

• REM sleep occurs regularly throughout the night

• Participants are more likely to recall dreams in REM sleep

• NREM recall seems to be due to memory of preceding dreams persisting

• Dreams can be recalled at any time, but mostly in the late hours of sleep

• Dreams do occur in real-time

• Objective measurement of dreaming can be achieved by recording REM while people are asleep

Ethics Confidentiality : Only initials used to represent subjects Right to withdraw : 4 participants exercised their right to withdraw Informed consent : Had right to withdraw, can infer consent

Standardization Tight controls Replicable : Standardized procedure (Alcohol/caffeine abstinence, regular bedtime, dark room, doorbell sound, etc.) Reliable

Generalization Biological approach: Everyone sleeps/dreams (Generalizable)

Mundane realism High mundane realism : Sleeping at normal bedtime

Validity Valid : Aims were confirmed, controls minimized extraneous variables

Usefulness Useful : Confirmation of REM sleep and dreaming can help treat sleeping disorders

Quantitative/Qualitative data Quantitative : Objective analysis of sleeping and dreaming (no observer bias) Qualitative : Rich, detailed data on dream content reports

Repeated measures 5 participants were deeply studied

Scientific equipment Use of an EEG

Ethics Deception : Participant WD was deceived Protection : Lack of protection from physical/mental harm

Participant variables Vocabulary of dream recall Participants might've lied about dreaming in order to go back to sleep

Ecological validity Low ecological validity : Done in unnatural setting, a laboratory

Generalizability Diversity : Ethnocentrism of males from Chicago area

Mundane realism Low mundane realism : No caffeine/alcohol, sleeping in lab, waking up to a doorbell, self-reporting into a tape recorder

Qualitative data Interpretation is needed, some recalls were dismissed

Repeated measures Order effects, participants may lie

Scientific equipment EEG machine cannot tell qualitative data/dream content

Biological approach Reductionist explanation of sleep/dreaming

View 1

• Socialization processes primarily shape toy preference.

View 2

• Biological factors determine toy preference.

View 3

• Hormones are the source of differences. (Girls with CAH show masculine toy preference, when encouraged to play with female toys, they reject and continue play with traditionally male toys.)

In 2002, Alexander and Hines did a study with vervet monkeys.

• Proportion of males toy interactions with masculine toys was greater than the proportion of females interactions with masculine toys. (Males interacted with masculine toys more than females)

• Authors suggested that the preference for masculine toys implied boys preferences for masculine toys reflected stronger gendered socialization of boys toy preference relative to girls.

• In the Alexander/Hines study, the monkeys were not presented with actual choices, findings limited to cross-sex willingness to play with any toy.

• Investigate the sex differences in toy preferences of rhesus monkeys

• See if socialization processes or biological mechanisms affect sex stereotypical toy choice.

• See if there are sex differences in toy choice of rhesus monkeys compared to human children

Opportunity sampling 135 monkeys from the National Primate Research Center Field Station (Atlanta, Georgia)

14 were on hormonal treatments and not included 39 infants were not included

*61 FEMALES AND 21 MALES. Housed in 25mx25m outdoor compounds with temperature controlled indoor quarters Water was continuously available Fed monkey chow twice daily

Laboratory experiment

Observations Controlled Non-participant Covert Structured (Time/event sampling)

Quantitative Calculated average frequencies and durations for each behavior

Extended touch Hold Sit on Carry in hand Carry in arm Carry in mouth Drag Manipulate part Turn entire toy Touch Sniff Mouth Destroy Jump away Throw

Monkeys genders (Male, female)

Whether or not the monkeys interacted with the toys Social rank Age

Independent measures since two groups of monkeys were compared: Males, females

Wheeled (masc) toys: Car, wagon, dump truck, shopping cart, construction vehicle

Plush (fem) toys: Turtle, armadillo, teddy bear, koala puppet, Scooby-Doo, Raggedy-Ann, Winnie-the-Pooh

Palm pilots equipped with app "Handobs"

Video cameras

All monkeys went through seven 25-minute trials at the research center

One wheeled and one plush toy were positioned 10m apart, positions were counterbalanced across trials

All trials were recorded and watched by two independent observers

Seven 25-minute trials were conducted in the large indoor/outdoor enclosure

Prior to the trial, subjects were moved indoors while one wheeled and one plush toy 10m apart were placed in the outdoor living area. Positions were counterbalanced across trials.

Monkeys were then released into the outdoor area, and each toy and any animal interacting with it was videotaped using separate cameras.

After each trial, toys were removed from the outdoor area. Identities of the animals interacting with the toys and specific behaviors were coded by two independent observers working together to achieve consensus on identity and behavior.

One trial was ended 7 minutes early, as a plush toy was torn into multiple pieces.

All specific behaviors were counted to provide frequencies of occurrence

For continuous behaviors, onsets/offsets were recorded to derive durations

Subjects with fewer than 5 behaviors were discounted. (3 males, 14 females) Leaves the final total of 23 females and 11 males.

Males significantly preferred the wheeled toys compared to plush toys

Females showed no significant preference for plush toys over the wheeled toys

Males/females showed no significant difference in frequency of interactions of wheeled toys compared to plush toys

Males showed significantly lower frequencies of play with plush toys compared to females

Males duration of interaction was significantly longer with wheeled toys than plush toys

Females duration of interaction was not significantly different between wheeled and plush toys

Males had a significantly higher duration AND frequency "magnitude of preference" score compared to the females

There were rank differences between females only. Rank significantly positively correlated with frequency of interaction for both types of toys. (Females with no preference were lower ranked than females with a plushy preference)

No age differences according to preferences in females

Results very similar to those in human children

MALES: 73% Preferred wheeled toys 9% Preferred plush toys 18% Had no preference

FEMALES: 30% Preferred wheeled toys 39% Preferred plush toys 30% Had no preference

Toy preference in rhesus monkeys seems to reflect behavioral/cognitive biases influenced by hormones, which are affected by social pressure to form observable sex differences

From Hassett et al.: "...hormonally organized preferences for specific activities that shape preference for toys that facilitate these activities."

• AKA, they prefer whichever toy they can play with in their desired way. (Males play more aggressively, making them prefer masculine wheeled toys, while females can play passively with either masculine wheeled or feminine plush toys, giving them no particular preference.)

The practice of purposely bringing ones attention to the present moment.

Goal is to wake up to inner workings of our mental, emotional, and physical processes

Can help with stress, anxiety, or treat eating disorders, depression, or pain

2004, a meta-analysis was conducted on the effectiveness of mindfulness based stress reduction/health benefits

Conclusion: MBSR helps a broad range of people to cope with clinical/non-clinical problems.

Investigate long term effects of MBSR programs on brain grey matter density

Identify brain structures that changed as a result of the 8-week program

Opportunity sampling Mentally and physically healthy (Not on any medications) right-handed individuals enrolled in MBSR courses held at Center for Mindfulness at Massachusetts Medical School

18 total participants

EXPERIMENTAL -6 men 10 women (Mean age 38) -13 Caucasians/1 Asian/1 African American/1 Multi-ethnic CONTROL -11 men 6 women (Mean age 39) -13 Caucasians/2 Asian/1 Hispanic/2 African American

2 participants did not return to do the second MRI scan.

Each participant that completed the study was given a discounted course fee.

Laboratory experiment Correlations Self-Reports Closed ended questionnaires

Quantitative ONLY Two MRI scans and a closed ended questionnaire

Whether participants received MBSR or not Whether data was collected at the beginning or end of the 8-week study period

Grey matter concentration in specific brain structures and throughout the brain Five facets of mindfulness questionnaire self-reports Time spent on mindfulness exercises between weekly sessions

Independent measures (Experimental and control group) 1.5T Siemens Magnetom Avanto scanner with standard head coil Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) 39 statements participants rate on a Likert scale of 1 (never/very rarely) to 10 (often/always) Audio recording containing 45 minute guided mindfulness exercises to practice daily at home

All subjects completed the FFMQ before and after the MBSR sessions All subjects went through two MRI scans

-8 weekly group meetings lasting 2.5 hours each -One full day (6.5 hours) during the 6th week

Three formal mindfulness training exercises BODY SCAN: -Attention is guided through the entire body, observing the body with non-judgmental awareness as a complete whole. MINDFUL YOGA: -Gentle stretching and slow movements coordinated with breath, and emphasis placed on bringing awareness to the present moment and a non-harming attitude towards the body. SITTING MEDITATION -Awareness of sensations of breathing, then evolves into awareness of sounds, sight, tastes, thoughts, and emotions. Later, emphasis is given to open awareness meditation which includes anything appearing in consciousness.

-Participants given audio recording with 45-minute guided mindfulness exercises that they practiced daily at home

-Taught to practice mindfulness informally in everyday activities (eating, washing dishes, walking)

-During classes, mindfulness exercises were practiced. Questions relating to the practice of mindfulness in everyday life were clarified and didactic instruction was given.

39 item Likert scale

Measures five factors of mindfulness:

OBSERVING: -Attending to/noticing internal and external stimuli (emotions, sensations, sights smells)

DESCRIBING: -Noting/mentally labeling these stimuli with words

ACTING WITH AWARENESS: -Attending to ones current actions, as opposed to behaving automatically/absentmindedly

NON-JUDGING OF INNER EXPERIENCE: -Refraining from evaluation of ones sensations, emotions, cognitions

NON-REACTIVITY TO INNER EXPERIENCE: -Allowing thoughts and feelings to come and go, without attention getting caught up in them.

All were scanned at the Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging in Charlestown

Scanned 2 weeks before and after participation. Control participants were also scanned twice around 2mo apart.

MRI enabled whole brain analyses and region of interest (ROI) analyses. ROI= Bilateral hippocampi and bilateral insulae.

Image analysis performed with voxel-based morphometry tools which measured gray and white matter of the brain tissue.

Results from FFMQ confirmed significant group-by-time interactions for 3/5 facets

Acting with awareness, observing, and non-judging all confirmed significant increase in those who partook in MBSR.

MBSR group identified small cluster with increased gray matter in left hippocampus

Changes were not found for insulae ROI.

Confirms structural changes in this region are detectable within 8 weeks following the participation in the MBSR program.

Four clusters had significantly greater gray matter concentration after compared to before in MBSR group

Four areas were: Posterior cingulate cortex Left temporo-parietal junction Lateral cerebellum Cerebellum vermis/brainstem

Hypothesized increased gray matter was confirmed

Exploratory whole-brain analysis identified significant increases in POSTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX, TEMPORO-PARIETAL JUNCTION, AND CEREBELLUM.

Adult nervous system has the capacity for plasticity, and brain structure can change in response to training

Other actions within program could've led to positive effects outside of mindfulness (social interaction, stress education, yoga)

Positive correlation not established between gray matter concentration and homework. MBSR program as a whole influences changes

Active control group would isolate specific effects of meditation

Generalizations are limited. Non-stressed people weren't tested, and it was a small sample size.

Mindfulness training DOES lead to increased brain matter changes. MBSR leads to improvement is psychological and well-being due to these changes.

When people are presented with something boring, they may daydream.

It's common for people to doodle in ways not linked to primary task.

To test whether doodling aids concentration during a boring task

40 members of the MRC Applied Psychology Unit at the University of Plymouth

Recruited from the general population, ages 18-55

Paid a small honorarium for taking part in the study

OPPORTUNITY SAMPLING: Subjects were asked to take part in the experiment after completing another (unrelated) experiment

Laboratory experiment Self reports

ONLY quantitative data: Mean number of correct recalls, false alarms, and memory scores for names and places

Doodling/Experimental group Non-doodling/Control group

Mean number of correct recalls, false alarms, and memory scores for names and places

Independent measures Participants were randomly assigned to either the doodling or non-doodling group

Recorded a 2.5 minute mock telephone message on a cassette player containing eight partygoers, and three people (+ one cat) who would not attend. Eight place names were also mentioned. (Monotonous voice, 227 words/minute, played at a comfortable volume)

Doodling group: Pencil Piece of A4 paper with 10 shapes (circles/squares in alternating rows, left-hand side margin of 4.5cm)

Non-doodling group: Pencil Blank piece of A4 paper

General instructions were standardized to all participants Participants all listened to the same mock telephone message

Participants were asked for 5 minutes of their time for another experiment just after completing an unrelated experiment for another researcher (In order to target boredom.)

They were randomly assigned to either the doodling or non-doodling group. (Doodling: 18F, 2M) (Non-doodling: 17F 3M)

They were then led into a quiet, visually dull room. (They were tested individually) They listened to instructions directing them to write down the names of people who will be attending the party and to ignore those who weren't, and then the tape was played. Participants in the doodling group were additionally instructed to shade in the squares and circles. After they listened to the tape and wrote down the names, the researcher collected their A4 paper and talked to them for one minute. During this minute of conversation, she apologized for misleading them about the memory test she was about to put them through. Half of the participants were asked to recall as many names of partygoers as they could, and then the places mentioned. This was counter-balanced, as the other half were asked for places first and then partygoers. During the debriefing, participants were asked if they anticipated the memory test.

In the doodling group, participants shaded on average 36.3 shapes. The range was 3-110

One participant failed to doodle and was replaced

None of the participants in the control group doodled

3 in the doodling and 4 in the non-doodling suspected the surprise memory test, BUT all 7 said they did not try to actively remember the information

If a response indicated a plausible mishearing (Craig/Greg), it was considered correct. New names, names of those who could not attend, or responses such as "sister" were false alarms (incorrect)

15 participants in the doodling group and 9 in the non-doodling got a max score

Monitoring performance was significantly higher in the doodling group than the non-doodling group

PARTICIPANTS IN THE DOODLING GROUP RECALELD ON AVERAGE: 7.5 CORRECT PIECES OF INFORMATION PARTICIPANTS IN THE NON-DOODLING GROUP RECALLED ON AVERAGE: 5.8 CORRECT PIECES OF INFORMATION

Number of correct names minus the number of false alarms

Debriefing: Participants were debriefed in the 1 minute conversation Presumptive consent Confidentiality

Reliability: Standard procedure with controls allows for replication and consistent, comparable findings

Counterbalanced: Names of partygoers and the places switched orders when asked for, avoiding fatigue/practice effects

Generalization: Large age range of 18-55, and represented both genders

Usefulness: Applicable research showing doodling aids concentration while performing a boring task

Mundane realism: Natural task to doodle when bored

Validity: Aims were confirmed, replaced the participant who did not doodle.

Deception: The surprise memory test could have caused mental distress to participants

Generalizable: Mainly females from Plymouth

Ecological validity: Was done in a lab/unnatural environment

Demand characteristics: Participants were paid an honorarium

Mundane realism: Unnatural to doodle for some people

Usefulness: Daydreaming was not targeted, only one type of doodling was investigated

Validity: NO qualitative data to explain why doodling aids concentration

Subjectivity: Accepting/discounting plausible mishearing

The ability to mentalize, or attribute mental states to oneself or another person.

In the Sally-Anne test, a first-order false belief task, normal children have significant pass rates while in autistic children, the majority failed. Therefore, ToM does not develop normally in autistic children.

It succeeded in discriminating adults with Aspergers and HFA, but suffered psychometric problems.

Average scores (25) Normal males: 18.8/25 (25) Normal females: 21.8/25 (8M, 2F) Tourette's: 20.4/25 (13M, 3F) AS/HFA: 16.3/25

Problem 1: Forced choice format, only 17/25 was above chance as there was only 2 choices. Solution: On the revised eyes test, number of questions was increased from 25-36, and there were now 4 answer choices.

Problem 2: Parents of children with AS scored similarly to AS/HFA adults. Narrow sample range can't distinguish a broader phenotype vs. the condition. Solution: As problem 1. Increased number of questions and answers choices allowed for a larger range of scores.

Problem 3: Ceiling effects. Consistently high scores biased results. Solution: 13/36 would be above chance. 13-36 would reveal differences.

Problem 4: Test used basic and complex emotions. Basic emotions like "happy" were too obvious, complex emotions like "aghast" required attribution of belief or intention. Solution: Test used only complex emotions.

Problem 5: Some items linked to gaze direction, like "noticing" or "ignoring." Solution: Those items were eliminated.

Problem 6: More female faces than male faces. Solution: Added an equal amount of female (18) and male (18) faces.

Problem 7: Target and foil were semantic opposites, making it too easy. Solution: 3 foils have similar emotional valence.

Problem 8: Comprehension/limited vocabulary Solution: Provided a glossary.

Aims: To test a group of AS/HFA adults on the revised eyes test to check if the deficits of the original were replicated.

To test if in a sample of adults, a negative correlation would be found between performance on the Revised Eyes test and the AQ Test.

To test if females would score higher on the Eyes Test than males.

Hypotheses: The AS/HFA group would score lower on the eyes test.

AS/HFA group would score higher on the AQ Test than other groups.

Females in the "normal" groups (2/3) would score higher than normal males on the Eyes test.

Males in the "normal" groups (3) would score higher than normal females on the AQ Test.

Scores on the AQ and Eyes Test would be inversely correlated.

Group 1: N= 15 Male AS/HFA Mean IQ of 115 Mean age of 30 Volunteer/Self selecting sample

Group 2: N= 122 Male/female Normal Mean age of 47 Opportunity sampling

Group 3: N= 103 53M 50F Assumed to have high IQ (Undergrads at Cambridge) Mean age of 21 Opportunity sampling

Group 4: N= 14 Male/female Average IQ of 116 (IQ matched with group 1) Mean age of 28 Random sampling

Quasi-natural laboratory experiment Correlations

Self-reports through closed-ended questionnaires

Quantitative ONLY Revised eyes test/AQ Test results

Never asked open ended questions

The sampling groups

Numerical results of the Revised Eyes and AQ Tests

Design: Independent measures Element of matched pairs

Apparatus: Quiet room at Cambridge Dictionary Revised Eyes Test (36 black and white photographs of male and female eyes from a magazine. Each photo had 4 words to describe the mental state of the person. Participant tasked with determining the right emotion to fit the eyes. AQ Test (50 question test with a 4-point scale, to determine spectrum of autistic traits in an adult.)

All participants completed the Revised Eyes Test in a quiet room at Cambridge.

All participants had access to a dictionary.

To check validity of the Revised Eyes Test, a pilot study was done. 8 members (4M, 4F) were shown 40 images. If 5/8 judges agreed on a suitable target word, it passed. No more than 2 judges could select any single foil. Items that failed to meet this criterion had new target words, foils, or both generated and re-piloted. 4 did not pass. hence, 36 questions.

Subjects in all four groups were tested on the revised eyes test individually in a quiet room at Cambridge. Subjects in (AS/HFA) group 1 were additionally asked to judge the gender of each person as a control task. Subjects in Groups 1, 3, and 4 were sent home with the AQ Test to complete at home and return. Subjects were asked at the outset to read through the glossary and indicate any word meanings they were unsure of. They were then encouraged to read these particular meanings and were told they could return to the glossary at any point.

Participants in the groups did not differ in the number of words in the glossary they were unsure of, and nobody checked more than 2 times.

AS/HFA group 1 performed significantly worse than the other groups. All subjects scored 33+/36 on the gender recognition task.

Normal females scored higher than normal males on the Revised Eyes Test.

AS/HFA group scored higher on the AQ Test than other groups

Normal males scored higher on the AQ test than normal females.

Distribution of scores for the Revised Eyes Test formed a normal bell curve.

Revised Eyes Test could still discriminate between AS/HFA adults and controls from different sections of society. New test was a success.

Revised Eyes Test is validated as a useful measurement to identify subtle impairment in social intelligence in otherwise normally intelligent adults.

No correlation between AQ score, IQ score, and Eyes test score. This suggests that it's independent on general intelligence.

Acknowledged issue: Stimuli are black and white, while real eyes are colored and dynamic.

Right to withdraw: Some did not return the AQ test, exercising their right to withdraw. Gave their consent Confidentiality

Standardization: Same tests, which can be replicated consistently.

Correlations: Established inverse correlations between AQ/Eyes test.

Validity: Glossary was provided Aims were confirmed Eyes test was revised

Quantitative: Objective, comparable data for the 4 groups.

Generalizations: Normal males and females, random general population and those with AS/HFA

Independent measures: Avoids order effects and demand characteristics

Lack of protection of physical harm: Group 1 participants could have been frustrated as the test would be difficult for them.

Ecological validity: The tests were done in an unnatural environment, and the eyes were black and white instead of colored and dynamic.

Mundane realism: A pencil and paper test is not comparable to normal mentalization.

Correlations: We cannot establish a relationship between social and non-social intellect

Reductionist: Uses the cognitive approach, reductionist expectation of social behavior through mind reading.

Validity: Lack of random allocation of subjects, producing experimenter bias. In the pilot study, only 5 judges had to agree.

Qualitative data: No data to explain the lack of social intelligence

Generalizations: Only males with AS/HFA. No females represented

Cultural/ethnocentric bias: Only eyes of white people were shown.

Research shows that under some conditions, child and adult eyewitnesses differ with their identification accuracy.

Children and adults produce comparable correct identifications in a target-present line-up.

Children are more likely to pick out an innocent person than adults in a target-absent line-up.

To investigate if children are less able to recognize human faces than adults.

To investigate if cognitive or social factors affect correct identification and false positive responses in a line-up.

59 young children, 21F 38M aged 4-7 (Mean age of 5) Opportunity sampling

53 adults, 36F 17M, aged 17-30 (Mean age of 21) Volunteer/self-selecting

Laboratory experiment Questionnaires and interviews

Quantitative ONLY Percentages of correct targets chosen Foils chosen False rejections Percentages of correct and incorrect rejection

Age (young child/adult) Nature of target faces (cartoon, human) Type of line-up (target present, target absent)

Correct identification rates for target-present line-ups Correct rejection rates for target-absent line-ups

Hybrid independent and repeated measures, since 2 groups were compared but also were exposed to both line-ups

The four videos (Diego, Dora, male actor, female actor) were randomized for each participant to avoid order effects. The order of faces in the line-ups were also randomized.

RESPONSE FORM: All participants were given the response form (Parent/Guardian filled out in the stead of children) Eight questions were asked: Their age, gender, primary language, ethnicity, number of children in the household and their ages, the amount of time spent watching cartoons per week, and how much time spent watching the cartoons from the study (Dora, Diego)

HUMAN FACE TARGETS: One female and one male Caucasian university student (each 22-years old) were targets. They each filmed a video (Girl brushing hair in bathroom, boy putting on coat and exiting his home) Each video provided a 2-3 second closeup of their face, and were filmed in color. No sound

HUMAN FACE FOILS: Each human was photographed in a different outfit than what was worn during the videoclip. Selected from a pool of 90 females and 90 males, and the foils were chosen based on similar appearance to the target, measured by hair color, length, and general face structure. 3 raters selected 4 foils. Targets and foils were cropped so their face neck and tops of their shoulders were shown. Target-present: Target and 3 foils Target-absent: 4 foils All photos were black and white

CARTOON TARGETS: Six second, colored clips of the targets were used. Dora: Talking to the audience Diego: Putting on a pair of gloves for safety Each video gave a 2-3 second closeup of ONLY the targets face Sound was muted

CARTOON FOILS: Selected from a vast number of readily available cartoon images Selected based on similar appearance to intended target, such as hair color, length, and facial structure Three raters judged about 10 photographs for each target, and the 4 with the highest similarity ratings were selected Most were displayed in similar clothes across different videos Cartoons depicted in photo-arrays were cropped from the top of the shoulders to their face to

All participants completed the response form prior to the procedure.

All videos and line-ups orders were randomized.

The instructions for the photo-array line-ups were standardized

Line-ups were presented using software on a laptop

All experimenters wore the same type of "professional-casual" clothing.

The parents/guardians were supplied with a written consent form and the demographics sheet, to be completed by the parent/guardian to ensure the cartoons were familiar to the children.

With consent and completed demographics forms, three female experimenters and one female facilitator arrived at the school.

Researchers were introduced to the students as a group from the university doing a project on TV shows and videogames.

During the introduction, the researchers made it clear that they could change their minds at any time and not be in trouble.

In order to create comfort with the child, they engaged in arts and crafts prior to the experimental task.

Each child was tested individually and monitored for fatigue, anxiety, or stress.

Each child was told they'd be watching videos of people doing different things, and to pay attention because they would be asked questions and shown pictures.

Once the child was comfortable, they played the first video. (human or cartoon)

After viewing the clip, the child was asked one free recall question. "What did the cartoon character/person look like?" After the response, the experimenter asked a non-specific probing question such as "Do you remember anything else."

If the child did not respond to the initial question, they were asked again.

After recording the information provided by the child, the experimenter displayed the line-up to the child on a laptop.

The experimenter asked the child to identify the cartoon or person they saw by pointing. They were also were informed the target may not be there, and that if they weren't to point to the box.

The response was recorded.

Following identification, the procedure was repeated for the additional three videos, each time reminding the children that the cartoon/person they are looking for may be absent.

After completing the s